Under the Saxon emperors, the Holy Roman Empire was a powerful combination of territories, each with a separate ruler. The Salian dynasty (1024-1125) included several strong emperors. In 1075, Pope Gregory VII disputed the right of Emperor Henry IV to appoint bishops. Many German princes sided with the pope and a series of civil wars began.

The Hohenstaufen emperors (1138-1254) reestablished order. But after the dynasty died out, disorder returned. By the 1300's, the emperors were almost powerless. The last Hohenstaufen died in 1254. The German princes did not elect another emperor until 1273. He was Rudolf I of Habsburg (or Hapsburg). Rudolf seized Austria and made it his main duchy. After Rudolf, emperors of various families reigned. Starting in 1438, the Habsburgs reigned almost continuously until 1806.

The Holy Roman Empire was never fully a German territory. Some Germans lived outside its borders, while some non-German areas were part of the empire. For a time, the empire included parts of Italy, as well as Slavic areas in eastern Europe, and part of what are now Belgium and the Netherlands. The empire also was made up of independent territories. A strong emperor could make their rulers cooperate. But often the emperor could not force them to do what he wanted.